Ceramic art
Ceramics an
d ceramic art in the art world means artwork made out of clay bodies and fired to form a ceramic. Some ceramic pieces are classified as fine art, while many others can be classified as one of the decorative, industrial or applied arts (the application of design and aesthetics to objects of function and everyday use). The identification of a specific pottery piece as a "work of art" is not always clear. Ceramic art usually, but not always, was intended by the maker as art. It may have a signature, designer name or brand name stamp on the bottom. Ceramic art can be either manufactured by individuals or in a factory that employs artists to design, produce or decorate the ware.Historically, ceramic articles were prepared by shaping the clay body, a clay rich mixture of various minerals, into the desired shapes before being subjected to high temperatures in a kiln. However ceramics now refers to a very diverse group of materials which, while all are fired to high temperature, may not have been shaped from material containing any clay. The origin of the word is the ancient Greek keramikos, from Keramos, meaning "potter's clay."
Ancient history
Ceramic art has an extensive prehistoric development in the Chinese, Cretan, Greek, Roman, Persian, Mayan, and numerous other cultures.
European
Mediterranean
On the Greek island of Santorini are some of the earliest finds dating to the third millennium BC, with the original settlement at Akrotiri dating to the fourth millennium BC; excavation work continues at the principal archaeological site of Akrotiri. Some of the excavated homes contain huge ceramic storage jars known as pithoi. Ancient Etruscan and Grecian ceramics are renowned for their figurative painting.
Venus Figurines
A number of Gravettian figurines found in the Czech Republic are believed to represent the earliest known works of ceramic artwork made of the human form. One such figurine is the Venus of Dolní Věstonice (Moravian), which was made between 27,000 and 31,000 years ago. The designation of this, and other similar figurines, as "venus" has no relation to the classical goddess of love, but reflects the figure's state of undress. The Venus figurine was made by molding and then firing a mixture of clay and powdered bone. This is the earliest known figurine made of ceramics representing the human form. Scholars do not know if it was intended as fine art, as religious icon, or some other intent; they just do not know the original meaning to the original culture. Similar figurines found throughout Eurasia are called Venus figurines and are noted for their natural looking representations of the female form with some artistic merit. Here are examples of what has been written about them:
Venus figurines are the name given to a nearly universal type of art, appearing first in the Upper Paleolithic period between 30,000 and 15,000 years ago.
The world's oldest surviving works of art fashioned after the human image appear in the archaeological strata of the Upper Paleolithic in Europe.
Asian
Chinese Longquan celadon, Song Dynasty, 13th century. Celadon was first made in China, and then exported to various parts of Asia and Europe. Celadon became a favourite of various kings and monarchs, such as the Ottoman Sultans, because of its pristine beauty, its resemblance to Chinese jade, and the belief that the celadon would change its colour if the food or wine were poisoned
The earliest known ceramic objects are Gravettian figurines such as those discover
ed at Dolni Vestonice in the modern-day Czech Republic. The Venus of Dolní Věstonice (Věstonická Venuše in Czech) is a Venus figurine, a statuette of a nude female figure dated to 29,000–25,000 BCE (Gravettian industry). The earliest known pottery vessels may be those made by the Incipient Jōmon people of Japan around 10,500 BCE. The term "Jōmon" means "cord-marked" in Japanese. This refers to the markings made on clay vessels and figures using sticks with cords wrapped around them. Pottery which dates back to 10,000 BCE have also been excavated in China. Chinese porcelain comes from the late Eastern Han period (100 to 200 AD), the Three Kingdoms period (220 to 280 AD), the Six Dynasties period (220 to 589 AD), and the Tang Dynasty (618 to 906 AD).
American
The oldest ceramics known in the Americas — made from 5,000 to 6,000 years ago — are found in the Andean region, along the Pacific coast of Ecuador at Valdivia and Puerto Hormiga, and in the San Jacinto Valley of Colombia; objects from 3,800 to 4,000 years old have been discovered in Peru. Some archaeologists believe that ceramics know-how found its way by sea to Mesoamerica, the second great cradle of civilization in the Americas.
The best-developed styles found in the central and southern Andes are the ceramics found near the ceremonial site at Chavín de Huántar (800–400 B.C.) and Cupisnique (1000–
400 B.C.). During the same period, another culture developed on the southern coast of Peru, in the area called Paracas. The Paracas culture (600–100 B.C.) produced marvelous works of embossed ceramic finished with a thick oil applied after firing. This colorful tradition in ceramics and textiles was followed by the Nazca culture (A.D. 1–600), whose potters developed improved techniques for preparing clay and for decorating objects, using fine brushes to paint sophisticated motifs. In the early stage of Nazca ceramics, potters painted realistic characters and landscapes. The Moche cultures (A.D. 1–800) that flourished on the northern coast produced extraordinary clay sculptures and effigies decorated with fine lines of red on a beige background. Moche artists also developed the ceramic technique of modeling. Their pottery stands out for its huacos retrato (portrait vases),works on which human faces are shown expressing different emotions—happiness, sadness, anger, melancholy—as well for its complicated drawings of wars, human sacrifices, and celebrations.
The Mayans were a relative latecomer to ceramic development, as their ceramic arts flourished in the Maya Classic Period, or the second to tenth century AD. One important site in southern Belize is known as Lubaantun, that boasts particularly detailed and prolific works. As evidence of the extent to which these ceramic art works were prized, many specimens traced to Lubaantun have been found at distant Mayan sites in Honduras and Guatemala. Furthermore, the current Mayan people of Lubaantun continue to hand produce copies of many of the original designs found at Lubaantun.
The Hopi in Northern Arizona and several other Puebloan peoples including the Taos, Acoma, and Zuñi people (all in the Southwestern United States) are renowned for painted pottery in several different styles of ceramic art. Nampeyo and her relatives created pottery that became highly sought after beginning in the early 20th century.
Fine art ceramics
Fine art ceramics include ceramic art made by hand and designed to be purely art, that is to be looked at and enjoyed visually and contemplatively, without any further uses. It is often one of a kind.
In modern art theory, the fine art pot or expressive pot has been used as a name of pottery that aspires to the conditions of fine art, generally by prioritizing conceptual and aesthetic qualities over functionality or usefulness. Fine art pot has been used as a term opposite of the phrase ethical pot (meaning utilitarian pottery) - at least by ceramic art theorists defining art styles and their merits since the 1940s.
Fine art pot styles were led and taught by William Staite Murray and other post-war potters such as Lucie Rie and Hans Coper. The alternative Arts and Crafts style of ethical pot (simple and utilitarian studio pottery) was explored by potter Bernard Leach and his followers.
The modern art movement in pottery is experimental in nature. Many styles originated from the Arts and Crafts movement when studio potters were looking to find a place and definition for the crafts in the age of industrialisation and mechanised-production, and from the desire to re-establish ceramics as a fine art mediu.
Modern ceramic artists and potters often engage in what has become know as the "Art versus Craft debate", in which the merits of each pottery approach are perpetually reiterated without resolution.
Industrial art ceramics
Industrial art ceramics includes ceramics made in factories that employ artists to design or hand paint the ceramics, or industrial-minded art collectives, and is often known by the name of the founder or the brand name of the product line. In general, industrial ceramics are not one of a kind, and are intended to be duplicated and sold on the market, using methods of limited or mass production. Some factories are known for their fine materials, intricate designs, elaborate painting and glazing by artisans. Many are of the objects produced are decorative by design, while others adhere to the idea of form follows function and purposefully designed to be utilitarian, however still considered a "work of art." Industrial ceramic art can be identified by brand name or distinctive styles. Examples include:Delftware
Environmental issues of production
Although many of the environmental effects of the workplace of ceramic art have existed for millennia, some of these have been amplified with modern technology and scales of production. The principal factors for consideration fall into two categories: (a] effects on workers and (b) effects on the general environment. Within the effects on workers, chief impacts are indoor air quality, sound levels and possible over-illumination. Regarding the general environment, factors of interest are off-site water pollution, air pollution and disposal of hazardous materials.
Historically plumbism, lead poisoning, was a significant health concern to those glazing pottery. This was recognised at least as early as the nineteenth century, and the first legislation in the United Kingdom to limit pottery workers’ exposure was introduced in 1899. [19] Whilst the risk of to those working in ceramics is now much reduced it can still not be ignored. With respect to indoor air quality, workers can be exposed to fine particulate matter, carbon monoxide and certain heavy metals. The greatest health risk is the potential to develop silicosis from the long-term exposure to crystalline silica. Proper ventilation can reduce the risks, and the first legislation in the United Kingdom to govern ventilation was introduced in 1899. Another, more recent study at Laney College, Oakland, California suggests that all these factors can be controlled in a well designed workshop environment.
The use of energy and pollutants in the production of ceramics is a growing concern. Electric firing is arguably more environmentally friendly than combustion firing, although the source of the electricity varies in environmental impact.
Ceramic art has an extensive prehistoric development in the Chinese, Cretan, Greek, Roman, Persian, Mayan, and numerous other cultures.
European
Mediterranean
On the Greek island of Santorini are some of the earliest finds dating to the third millennium BC, with the original settlement at Akrotiri dating to the fourth millennium BC; excavation work continues at the principal archaeological site of Akrotiri. Some of the excavated homes contain huge ceramic storage jars known as pithoi. Ancient Etruscan and Grecian ceramics are renowned for their figurative painting.
Venus Figurines
A number of Gravettian figurines found in the Czech Republic are believed to represent the earliest known works of ceramic artwork made of the human form. One such figurine is the Venus of Dolní Věstonice (Moravian), which was made between 27,000 and 31,000 years ago. The designation of this, and other similar figurines, as "venus" has no relation to the classical goddess of love, but reflects the figure's state of undress. The Venus figurine was made by molding and then firing a mixture of clay and powdered bone. This is the earliest known figurine made of ceramics representing the human form. Scholars do not know if it was intended as fine art, as religious icon, or some other intent; they just do not know the original meaning to the original culture. Similar figurines found throughout Eurasia are called Venus figurines and are noted for their natural looking representations of the female form with some artistic merit. Here are examples of what has been written about them:
Venus figurines are the name given to a nearly universal type of art, appearing first in the Upper Paleolithic period between 30,000 and 15,000 years ago.
The world's oldest surviving works of art fashioned after the human image appear in the archaeological strata of the Upper Paleolithic in Europe.
Asian
Chinese Longquan celadon, Song Dynasty, 13th century. Celadon was first made in China, and then exported to various parts of Asia and Europe. Celadon became a favourite of various kings and monarchs, such as the Ottoman Sultans, because of its pristine beauty, its resemblance to Chinese jade, and the belief that the celadon would change its colour if the food or wine were poisoned
The earliest known ceramic objects are Gravettian figurines such as those discover
ed at Dolni Vestonice in the modern-day Czech Republic. The Venus of Dolní Věstonice (Věstonická Venuše in Czech) is a Venus figurine, a statuette of a nude female figure dated to 29,000–25,000 BCE (Gravettian industry). The earliest known pottery vessels may be those made by the Incipient Jōmon people of Japan around 10,500 BCE. The term "Jōmon" means "cord-marked" in Japanese. This refers to the markings made on clay vessels and figures using sticks with cords wrapped around them. Pottery which dates back to 10,000 BCE have also been excavated in China. Chinese porcelain comes from the late Eastern Han period (100 to 200 AD), the Three Kingdoms period (220 to 280 AD), the Six Dynasties period (220 to 589 AD), and the Tang Dynasty (618 to 906 AD).American
The oldest ceramics known in the Americas — made from 5,000 to 6,000 years ago — are found in the Andean region, along the Pacific coast of Ecuador at Valdivia and Puerto Hormiga, and in the San Jacinto Valley of Colombia; objects from 3,800 to 4,000 years old have been discovered in Peru. Some archaeologists believe that ceramics know-how found its way by sea to Mesoamerica, the second great cradle of civilization in the Americas.
The best-developed styles found in the central and southern Andes are the ceramics found near the ceremonial site at Chavín de Huántar (800–400 B.C.) and Cupisnique (1000–
400 B.C.). During the same period, another culture developed on the southern coast of Peru, in the area called Paracas. The Paracas culture (600–100 B.C.) produced marvelous works of embossed ceramic finished with a thick oil applied after firing. This colorful tradition in ceramics and textiles was followed by the Nazca culture (A.D. 1–600), whose potters developed improved techniques for preparing clay and for decorating objects, using fine brushes to paint sophisticated motifs. In the early stage of Nazca ceramics, potters painted realistic characters and landscapes. The Moche cultures (A.D. 1–800) that flourished on the northern coast produced extraordinary clay sculptures and effigies decorated with fine lines of red on a beige background. Moche artists also developed the ceramic technique of modeling. Their pottery stands out for its huacos retrato (portrait vases),works on which human faces are shown expressing different emotions—happiness, sadness, anger, melancholy—as well for its complicated drawings of wars, human sacrifices, and celebrations.The Mayans were a relative latecomer to ceramic development, as their ceramic arts flourished in the Maya Classic Period, or the second to tenth century AD. One important site in southern Belize is known as Lubaantun, that boasts particularly detailed and prolific works. As evidence of the extent to which these ceramic art works were prized, many specimens traced to Lubaantun have been found at distant Mayan sites in Honduras and Guatemala. Furthermore, the current Mayan people of Lubaantun continue to hand produce copies of many of the original designs found at Lubaantun.
The Hopi in Northern Arizona and several other Puebloan peoples including the Taos, Acoma, and Zuñi people (all in the Southwestern United States) are renowned for painted pottery in several different styles of ceramic art. Nampeyo and her relatives created pottery that became highly sought after beginning in the early 20th century.
Fine art ceramics
Fine art ceramics include ceramic art made by hand and designed to be purely art, that is to be looked at and enjoyed visually and contemplatively, without any further uses. It is often one of a kind.
In modern art theory, the fine art pot or expressive pot has been used as a name of pottery that aspires to the conditions of fine art, generally by prioritizing conceptual and aesthetic qualities over functionality or usefulness. Fine art pot has been used as a term opposite of the phrase ethical pot (meaning utilitarian pottery) - at least by ceramic art theorists defining art styles and their merits since the 1940s.
Fine art pot styles were led and taught by William Staite Murray and other post-war potters such as Lucie Rie and Hans Coper. The alternative Arts and Crafts style of ethical pot (simple and utilitarian studio pottery) was explored by potter Bernard Leach and his followers.
The modern art movement in pottery is experimental in nature. Many styles originated from the Arts and Crafts movement when studio potters were looking to find a place and definition for the crafts in the age of industrialisation and mechanised-production, and from the desire to re-establish ceramics as a fine art mediu.
Modern ceramic artists and potters often engage in what has become know as the "Art versus Craft debate", in which the merits of each pottery approach are perpetually reiterated without resolution.
Industrial art ceramics
Industrial art ceramics includes ceramics made in factories that employ artists to design or hand paint the ceramics, or industrial-minded art collectives, and is often known by the name of the founder or the brand name of the product line. In general, industrial ceramics are not one of a kind, and are intended to be duplicated and sold on the market, using methods of limited or mass production. Some factories are known for their fine materials, intricate designs, elaborate painting and glazing by artisans. Many are of the objects produced are decorative by design, while others adhere to the idea of form follows function and purposefully designed to be utilitarian, however still considered a "work of art." Industrial ceramic art can be identified by brand name or distinctive styles. Examples include:Delftware
Environmental issues of production
Although many of the environmental effects of the workplace of ceramic art have existed for millennia, some of these have been amplified with modern technology and scales of production. The principal factors for consideration fall into two categories: (a] effects on workers and (b) effects on the general environment. Within the effects on workers, chief impacts are indoor air quality, sound levels and possible over-illumination. Regarding the general environment, factors of interest are off-site water pollution, air pollution and disposal of hazardous materials.
Historically plumbism, lead poisoning, was a significant health concern to those glazing pottery. This was recognised at least as early as the nineteenth century, and the first legislation in the United Kingdom to limit pottery workers’ exposure was introduced in 1899. [19] Whilst the risk of to those working in ceramics is now much reduced it can still not be ignored. With respect to indoor air quality, workers can be exposed to fine particulate matter, carbon monoxide and certain heavy metals. The greatest health risk is the potential to develop silicosis from the long-term exposure to crystalline silica. Proper ventilation can reduce the risks, and the first legislation in the United Kingdom to govern ventilation was introduced in 1899. Another, more recent study at Laney College, Oakland, California suggests that all these factors can be controlled in a well designed workshop environment.
The use of energy and pollutants in the production of ceramics is a growing concern. Electric firing is arguably more environmentally friendly than combustion firing, although the source of the electricity varies in environmental impact.
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